Japan

Dynastic Japan The chain of islands that make up modern Japan stretch from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. Much of Japan faces what is now North Korea and South Korea, while the southernmost edge of the country's territory abuts that of modern China to the south-west. Four main islands make up the country, these being from north to south Hokkaido, Honshu (Honshū - the largest of all of them), Shikoku (the smallest), and Kyushu (Kyūshū). A further six thousand smaller islands are also included, although less than five hundred of these are occupied. Japan has emerged from a generally unified but rarely harmonious history of clan feuding and political intriguing that began as soon as its Early Cultures had reached any particular level of complexity. At various points that unity existed in name only, thanks to the continued presence of a divine emperor, while two or more major clans conducted what was little less than a Japanese civil war across the four main islands. It is the divine emperors who are chronicled here, someone whom their warring subjects rarely opposed but who were often little more than pawns themselves in the ongoing clan struggle for superiority. (Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the BBC series, The Story of China, by Michael Wood, first broadcast between 21 January and 25 February 2016, and from External Links: Japanese Archaeology, and Encyclopaedia Britannica.)
Emperors of the Sun Line of Japan (Legendary Period) AD 1st Century (660 BC) - AD 539 According to legend, Emperor Jimmu Tenno arrived with his people on the islands of Japan in 660 BC. However, the number of his successors between that arrival and the first truly historical emperors puts that arrival at a point in the first century, coinciding with the Yayoi period of Japan's Early Cultures. In addition, all dates prior to AD 500 should be approached with caution, and even more so given the extraordinary lengths of reign ascribed to some early emperors. Those for the first twenty-eight emperors are based on the Japanese calendar system but are adjusted to bring them into line with 'real world' dating. As their historical existence is unproven, they are shown with a pink background to highlight their legendary status. Today there are around 127 million Japanese speakers worldwide, with a vocabulary that has been strongly influenced by Chinese during the fifteen hundred years between the legendary period and the modern day. It is an agglutinative language with a complex system of formalities that express the hierarchical relationships within Japanese society and the relative relationships between internal discussion partners. Japanese script is a mixture of Kanji - characters copied from Chinese - and Hiragana and Katakana, which are based on syllables. It is one of two languages in the Japanese Ryukyuan language family - the other being Ryukyuan, which is spoken on the Ryukyu Islands. Experts remain unsure about the origins of this language family. It shows links and similarities with other languages in many different areas, with many theories being expounded about its source, these including the following: Japanese is related to a now-extinct language which used to be spoken in Korea and Manchuria; Japanese is related to Korean; Japanese is one of the Altaic languages which followers of this theory also believe to include Mongolian, Tungusic, Turkic, and Korean; Japanese is a Creole language, possibly with Austronesian influences; Japanese is a purely Austronesian language; or Japanese is related to Tamil. All or any of these theories may contain elements of truth. (Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Records of the Three Kingdoms, Chen Shou (third century text which covers the period AD 184-220 and which combines individual histories of the three kingdoms), from the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), from the Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan), and from External Links: Fasttranslator, and Japan-Guide.com, and Ancient History Encyclopaedia, and Early Jomon hamlet found (The Japan Times, 1997), and Three Kingdoms (Encyclopaedia Britannica, and New World Encyclopaedia).)
AD 1st century	Jimmu Tenno		Tribal leader. Legendary founder of Japan.
AD 1st century	Jimmu Tenno - the posthumous name for this legendary founder figure of Japanese culture and imperial rule - is given a date of birth of 660 BC and a date of death of 585 BC. Shintoism places him as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu, after she had sent her grandson to the Japanese islands to marry a local princess. Jimmu Tenno is the grandson of that princess and her husband. Jimmu Tenno, founder figure of modern Japan, as seen in a coloured wood engraving by Nakai Tokujiro in 1908 during the country's growing imperial status in the twentieth century
	However, his claimed arrival on Japan with his followers is in fact an eastwards migration from Takachiho, the southern part of Kyūshū (in modern-day Miyazaki prefecture) towards Naniwa (modern day Ōsaka). The migration is lead by Jimmu's brother as their former location is inappropriate for ruling over all of Japan. The brother is killed in battle and Jimmu completes the conquest by sailing around the islands and attacking Naniwa from the east (hence his 'arrival'). It would seem that Jimmu's clan is largely dominant but needs to defeat one or more other clans to be able to claim complete domination, much as the historical Yayoi period clans are in fact doing at this time in Japan.
	Suizei		Son. Reigned 37 years.
	Annei		Son. Reigned 38 years.
	Itoku		Son. Reigned 33 years.
	Kōshō		Son. Allegedly reigned 82 years.
2nd century	Kōan		Son. Allegedly reigned 101 years.
by 100	A society has by now emerged in Yayoi period Japan which involves a class system. Around a hundred clans have formed which fight each other for dominance throughout the rest of the period. Despite this fighting, the clans also form alliances when necessary, creating small kingdoms for the purpose of ensuring military power or mutual economic success. The Chinese Han Shu history of AD 82 is one source for this information.
	Kōrei		Son. Allegedly reigned 75 years.
	Kōgen		Son. Allegedly reigned 56 years.
? - 219	Kaika		Son. Allegedly reigned 60 years.
219 - 249	Sujin		Son. Reigned 67 years. Legendary male version of Himiko?
c.220s - 240s	Emperor Sujin's proto-historical reign coincides very nicely with the historically-attested reign of Himiko, the female ruler of the Yamato, Japan's largest and most powerful clan at this time. She is recorded in the Wei Zhi, a history of the Wei kingdom in 'Three Kingdoms' China. Himiko is described as a shaman, practicing magic in her spare time, and that she had come to power through many years of war and conquest. In her later years she is effectively supreme ruler of Yayoi period Japan. Queen Himiko is mentioned by a number of contemporary and near-contemporary Chinese sources (shown here with her single male advisor) but seems to have been airbrushed out of early Japanese records, which suggests that a change of dynasty made her a figure to be avoided
249 - 280	Suinin		Son. The unnamed, unpopular Yayoi period king?
280 - 316	Keikō		Male equivalent of female relative of Queen Himiko?
c.AD 300	The Yayoi period is succeeded by the Kofun period in Japan. A central ruling power has by now emerged and within a century all of Japan is united under its control. This ruling power claims descent and continuity from the far more dubious and uncertain rulers of the legendary period which essentially covers the arrival, settlement, and ascendancy of the Japanese during the Yayoi period. Japan's dynastic history has begun.
316 - 342	Seimu		Son. Allegedly reigned 59 years.
343 - 346	Chūai		Nephew. Reigned 8 years.
346	According to early myth Emperor Chūai is ordered by a kami (a spirit) to invade Korea. He refuses and the kami later engineers his death during a battle (on Japanese soil). His length of reign of eight years is in marked contrast with those of his predecessors. His position as nephew of the preceding emperor is the first instance in which the title has not passed from father to son. Finally, his use of Kyushu rather than Yamato for the imperial capital is another first. Possibly these changes mark the emergence of a greater historical aspect to the early emperors and the gradual end of the legendary period. The subsequent Yamato period witnesses the emergence of more concrete historical markers in Japan.
Yamato Period Japan (Kofun Period) AD 346 - 539 A central power had certainly developed in the fertile Kinai Plain in Japan by the time of the Kofun Period (kofun after the type of tombs which were built for the country's rulers). By about 400 the country was unified as Yamato Japan, with the royal court in Yamato Province (the modern Nara Prefecture). Yamato Japan extended from Kyushu to the Kinai Plain, but did not yet include the Kanto, Tohoku, or Hokkaido. Still part of the Legendary period, dates for the emperors of this period are less uncertain than previously, but still not entirely trustworthy. Historically speaking, the Yamato had formed Japan's largest and most powerful clan in the third century AD, during the Yayoi period. Their best-known ruler at this time was Queen Himiko, as attested by Chinese travellers. In her later years she effectively became supreme ruler of Japan after having led the Yamato drive to dominate the other clans. It was also Yamato which served as the capital for most of the legendary emperors who claimed descent (or had it claimed for them by later writers) from Jimmu Tenno. Dates for the first twenty-eight emperors are based on the Japanese calendar system but are adjusted to bring them into line with 'real world' dating. As their historical existence is unproven, they are shown with a pink background to highlight their legendary status. Japanese did not have its own script before the fifth century. After the Japanese had become acquainted with Chinese culture via Korean monks and scholars, they adopted Chinese script in addition to other Chinese cultural aspects. Their own Japanese script was developed from this over the course of time. Chinese characters were used to write Chinese loan words or Japanese words with the same meaning. Word endings and expressions with a grammatical function were also written in this Kanji script until replaced by the development of two writing systems, Hiragana and Katakana, which were based on syllables. (Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Records of the Three Kingdoms, Chen Shou (third century text which covers the period AD 184-220 and which combines individual histories of the three kingdoms), from the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), from the Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan), from Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II, Joshua Hammer (Simon & Shuster, 2006), and from External Links: Fasttranslator, and Japan-Guide.com, and Ancient History Encyclopaedia, and Early Jomon hamlet found (The Japan Times, 1997), and Three Kingdoms (Encyclopaedia Britannica, and New World Encyclopaedia), and Japan: The Official Guide.)
346 - 395	Ōjin / Oojin		Son of Chūai. Last proto-historical emperor.
346 - ?		Empress Jingû Kôgô	Mother & regent. Associated with Himiko of the Yayoi period.
395 - 427	Nintoku		Son of Ōjin.
416	The earliest earthquake to be documented in Japanese history occurs in this year. The imperial palace at Kyoto is 'thrown to the ground' by it, with the cause commonly believed to be the thrashing of the great catfish upon which the Japanese islands rest.
427	Commonly known as the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, the keyhole-shaped creation is one of the three largest tombs in the world. Although clearly dedicated to someone of immense power, there is no proof that it actually is built for Nintoku, so archaeologists generally know it as Daisenryo or Daisenryo Kofun. The tomb is surrounded by three moats, and construction takes sixteen years. Nintoku's tomb - Daisenryo Kofun - in Sakai, Osaka in Japan, cannot specifically be ascribed to him despite the popular name, and the emperor himself is regarded as one of the legendary emperors, with the unreliable Nihon Shoki proclaiming his deeds
427 - 432	Richû		Son. Killed by disease.
433 - 438	Hanzei		Brother. Ruled despite Richû having 2 sons.
438 - 453	Ingyō		Brother.
453 - 456	Ankō		Son. Accepted widely as an historical ruler. Murdered.
456	In one of the earliest-known internal power struggles in Japan, Ankō is murdered as part of a conflict between his various brothers. Yūryaku defeats the rest and succeeds him as the next emperor.
456 - 479	Yūryaku		Brother. Reputed to be cruel.
480 - 484	Seinei		Son. Defeated his brother to secure throne. Died childless.
485 - 487	Kenzō		Grandson of Richû.
488 - 498	Ninken		Brother.
498 - 506	Buretsu		Son. Died childless.
507	Buretsu dies childless, and his successor is claimed as a fifth generation descendant of Ōjin (346-395). Keitai may be responsible for founding a new dynasty with his accession to the throne. If true, then Buretsu is effectively the last incumbent of Japan's first historical (or semi-historical) dynasty.
507 - 531	Keitai		Son. Possible founder of a new dynasty.
531	Upon the death of Emperor Keitai, a succession dispute sets in between two branches of the Yamato clan. Keitai's immediate successors, Ankan and Senka, are opposed by Kimmei. The latter will eventually found his own Asuka period of emperors.
531 - 535	Ankan		Son.
535 - 539	Senka		Brother.
539	Both Ankan and Senka have been opposed by their brother, Kimmei. Little detail is available regarding any of the emperors in this period but discrepancies in Kimmei's dating have raised the suspicion that he has set up a rival court between 531-539. Senka's reign lasts for just three years, although his cause of death seems to be unrecorded. Death by civil war cannot be ruled out. The Asuka period succeeds the Yamato.
Asuka Period Japan (Historical Period) AD 539 - 710 According to available records, not all of which are entirely reliable, Japan had been a single, unified state since around AD 400 during the Yamato period. Dates for those early emperors are based on the Japanese calendar system but have been adjusted to bring them into line with 'real world' dating. It is the Asuka period that does much to dispel that early dating uncertainty. From this point onwards, emperors follow traditional dates which are more or less reliable. Despite the period beginning in 539, though, the imperial court did not move to Asuka until 592. The end of the Yamato period saw the final two emperors being opposed by their brother, Kimmei. Little detail is available regarding any of the emperors in this period but discrepancies in Kimmei's dating have raised the suspicion that he set up a rival court between 531-539. Emperor Senka's reign lasted for just three years, although his cause of death seems to have been unrecorded, or has not survived, although death by civil war cannot be ruled out. Kimmei was now unopposed - the earliest of Japan's emperors with dates that can be verified. Under him and his successors the Asuka period witnessed the continuance of friendly relations with the kingdom of Paekche. This aided in the arrival of Buddhism in Japan in 538 or 552, and the flourishing of the imperial court which promoted the new religion. It is largely this act that pins the start of the Asuka to the start of Kimmei's reign. (Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Yokohama Burning: The Deadly 1923 Earthquake and Fire that Helped Forge the Path to World War II, Joshua Hammer (Simon & Shuster, 2006), from the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), from the Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan), and from External Links: Japan-Guide.com, and Ancient History Encyclopaedia, and Early Jomon hamlet found (The Japan Times, 1997), and Three Kingdoms (Encyclopaedia Britannica, and New World Encyclopaedia), and Japan: The Official Guide.))
539 - 571	Kimmei / Kinmei		A Yamato. Earliest emperor with verifiable dates.
572 - 585	Bidatsu		Son of Yamato Emperor Keitai. Possibly died of smallpox.
585 - 587	There is a succession war in Japan, although it remains a cold war until the death of Yōmei, the half-brother to Bidatsu. None of Bidatsu's many children are considered for the role of emperor. Yōmei is a supporter of Buddhism, but the traditionalists in Japan launch an attack on pro-Buddhists just a month or so after his death. They are thoroughly defeated, while the Soga clan becomes dominant at court at the expense of the diminished Mononobe clan. The Asuka period in Japan saw the ruling emperors begin to assert their authority fully, establishing themselves and their country as Nippon, the land of the rising sun, and throwing off Chinese regionalism in the form of the earlier name of Wa ('little kingdom')
585 - 587	Yōmei		Half-brother to Bidatsu.
587 - 592	Sushun / Sajun		Son of Kimmei. Assassinated.
592	Sushun had begun to resent the power at court of the Soga clan. Shortly after announcing his desire to kill the head of the clan he is himself assassinated. No chosen successor is in place to fill the power vacuum so Sushun's half-sister accepts the role in order to avert further internecine fighting. The powerful Soga no Umako may not be a power behind the throne, but he certainly wields considerable influence.
592 - 628	Empress Suiko		Half-sister. First truly historical empress.
592 - 593?		Soga no Umako	Regent, but possibly not entirely dominant behind the throne.
593 - 622		Shōtoku	Regent to Suiko. Promoted Chinese ideas.
599	The second earthquake to be documented in Japanese history occurs now. Buildings throughout the province of Yamato (the modern Nara Prefecture) are destroyed, leading thousands of survivors to offer prayers to Kashima to stave off further destruction.
629 - 641	Jomei		Grandson of Bidatsu.
642 - 645	Empress Kōgyoku		Wife-niece. Abdicated in favour of her brother. Returned 655.
645 - 654	Kōtoku		Brother.
644 - 645	The power of the Soga clan is broken, and the emperor marries a Soga daughter to ensure that any remaining influence is brought entirely within the imperial family. From 645 the era of the Fujiwara clan starts and lasts until the rise of the samurai military class in the eleventh century. A new government and administrative system is established after the Chinese model in the Taika reforms. All land is bought by the state and then redistributed equally amongst farmers as part of sweeping land reforms in order to introduce the new tax system that is adopted from China. Empress Suiko, half-sister to the murdered Emperor Sushun, became Japan's first historically-confirmed female ruler, although she would certainly not be the last
655 - 661	Empress Saimei		Empress Kōgyoku re-acceded throne as Saimei.
660	The Chinese T'ang invade and conquer the kingdom of Paekche on the mainland. Empress Saimei fully intends to launch an invasion of the rival Silla kingdom which is assisting the Chinese in order to support Paekche's nobility. An army that is made up of Japanese and Paekche troops is assembled and departs soon after the unexpected death of the aging empress.
662 - 671	Tenji / Tenchi (Nakanooye)		Son of Jomei.
671 - 672	Kōbun (Prince Ōtomo)		Son. Ruled several months. Named posthumously.
673	Prince Ōtomo has gained the throne despite being the son of a lowly imperial consort who does not have the status required to back him or support him. Known only after his death as Emperor Kōbun and not always included in the list of succession, Ōtomo is opposed by his uncle, Kemmu. In an incident that is known as the Jinshin War, Ōtomo's forces are defeated and Ōtomo commits suicide. Kemmu almost immediately moves the imperial capital back to Yamoto but names a freshly built infrastructure there as Asuka.
673 - 686	Kemmu / Temmu		Brother of Tenji. Usurped Kōbun's throne.
690 - 697	Empress Jitō		Wife. Stepped down when her grandson was of age.
697 - 707	Mommu		Grandson.
707 - 715	Empress Gemmei / Genmei		Mother-cousin. Paved the way for the Nara period.
710 - 715	Empress Gemmei establishes her official residence in the mountainous location of Nara in AD 710 (still within Yamato Province), a projected move that had been initiated during the reign of Mommu. In 715 she abdicates in favour of Mommu's elder sister who succeeds her as Genshō, the first ruler of the Nara period.

Nara Period Japan AD 710 - 794 In AD 710, the first permanent Japanese capital was established in Nara. This was a city modelled on the Tang Chinese capital of Xi'an, which was at its peak in terms of cultural influence and industrial power. China was the superpower of the ancient east, and everyone wanted to copy its glories. The imperial court made a concerted effort in this period to document its history, producing the country's first works of literature. 715 - 724 Empress Genshō 724 - 749 Shomu 749 - 758 Empress Koken Abdicated in favour of cousin. Buddhist. 758 - 764 Junnin (Haitei) Second cousin. A young sovereign. Posthumously named Junnin. 764 - 770 Empress Shotoku Empress Koken took crown back from Junnin and ruled again. 770 - 781 Konin / Kammu Heian Period Japan AD 794 - 1192 Confucianism and other Chinese influences were at their height during this period, and the imperial court was similarly at its height. The period began in 794 with the capital being moved to Heian kyō (modern Kyoto). The first shoguns appeared during this period, but only as generals leading campaigns against northern 'barbarians'. (Additional information by Haruo Kakuta.) 781 - 806 Kammu 50th Emperor of the Sun Line. 799 The presence of salt pans around the Seto Inland Sea in the eighth century is supported by documents. Nihon Koki, for example, has an entry dated 14 November 799 which relates that 'Bizen Province said, "People in Kojima County have made their living by producing salt, and prepared for Cho and Yo taxes with the salt. The mountains, the wilds, the seashores, and the islands there have been for common use as a rule. Powerful clans and families have come to disturb and deprive the people. The more prosperous the powerful become, the more distressed the poor turn. We beg things to be replaced." The Emperor ordered, "It is against the public benefit that the powerful intimidate the poor. It must be stopped and never be allowed to happen."'. 806 - 809 Heizei Died 824. 809 - 823 Saga Died 842. 823 - 833 Junna Died 840. 833 - 850 Nimmyo 850 - 858 Montoku 858 - 876 Seiwa Died 880. 877 - 884 Yozei Died 949. 884 - 887 Koko 887 - 897 Uda Died 937. 897 - 930 Daigo 930 - 946 Suzaku Died 952. 946 - 967 Murakami 967 - 969 Reizei Died 1011. 969 - 984 Enyû Died 991. 984 - 986 Kazan Died 1008. 986 - 1011 Ichijô 1011 - 1016 Sanjô Died 1017. 1016 - 1036 Go-Ichijô 1036 - 1045 Go-Suzaku 1045 - 1068 Go-Reizei 1067 - 1072 Go-Sanjô Died 1073. 1072 - 1086 Shirakawa First 'cloistered' emperor (1086-1129). 1086 - 1129 Shirakawa becomes the first cloistered emperor when he 'retires' to a monastery in 1086, but in fact continues to exert considerable influence over his successor (all cloistered emperors below are shown in red, while their 'influenced' successors are shown with a shaded background). 1086 - 1107 Horikawa 1107 - 1123 Toba Cloistered emperor (1129-1156). 1123 - 1141 Sutoku Son. Died 1156. 1141 - 1155 Konoye Brother. Died aged 17 with no heir. 1155 - 1158 Go-Shirakawa Brother. Cloistered emperor (1158-1179 & 1180-1192). 1159 - 1165 Nijô m daughter of Toba. 1166 - 1168 Rokujô Died 1176. 1169 - 1181 Takakura Cloistered emperor (1180-1181). 1179 - 1180 Go-Shirakawa attempts to regain direct power, but fails, so he reverts to cloistered rule. 1180 - 1185 The Taira and Minamoto clans fight a deciding war for supremacy, the Gempei War. In 1185, the Battle of Dan-no-ura sees the Taira Clan being overthrown by the Minamoto, who in 1192 become the first shoguns to govern the country. 1181 - 1183 Antoku Died 1185. 1183 - 1198 Go-Toba Cloistered emperor (1198-1221). Died 1239. 1199 After Shogun Yoritomo's death, quarrels for supremacy start between the bakufu of Kamakura and the imperial court in Kyoto. Kamakura Period Japan AD 1192 - 1333 Emperors of this period follow traditional dates which are more or less reliable. The Shoguns became the secular rulers of the country from 1192, while the Hojo regents gained imperial power from 1203, depriving the emperor and government offices of practically all remaining power. 1199 - 1210 Tsuchimikado Died 1231. 1203 The Hojo regents gain power In Japan. 1211 - 1221 Juntoku Sent into exile after being defeated. Died 1242. 1221 The quarrels for supremacy between the shoguns and the imperial court reach an end in the Jokyu War (or Incident) when the imperial army is defeated in Kyoto, and the Hojo regents in Kamakura achieve complete control over Japan. 1221 Chukyo Died 1234. Dethroned aged 2. Officially listed after 1870. 1222 - 1232 Go-Horikawa Died 1234. 1233 - 1242 Shijo 1243 - 1246 Go-Saga Died 1272. 1247 - 1259 Go-Fukakusa Died 1304. 1260 - 1274 Kameyama Died 1305. 1274 The first Mongol invasion is defeated through bad weather conditions, with the outnumbered Japanese facing superior and much more modern forces. The defeat is an unexpected one for the otherwise near-universally victorious Mongols. This illustration of the first Mongol attempt to invade Japan shows the Mongol fleet being smashed to pieces by the 'divine wind' that saved the Japanese 1275 - 1287 Go-Uda Died 1324. 1281 The second Mongol invasion is again defeated through bad weather conditions. The Mongols suffer around seventy-five per cent casualties and a clear limit is set on their expansion in Asia. Japan praises the kamikaze, or 'divine wind', which has saved it twice from invasion. 1288 - 1298 Fushimi Died 1217. 1299 - 1301 Go-Fushimi Died 1336. 1302 - 1308 Go-Nijo 1309 - 1318 Hanazono Died 1348. 1319 - 1336 Go-Daigo Southern Court from 1336. 1333 At the climax of a two-year-long campaign, Go-Daigo overthrows the weakened Hojo regent. 1336 Ashikaga Takauji drives Go-Daigo out of Kyoto and two years later declares himself shogun, splitting the country between the Northern and Southern courts. Ashikaga Period Japan / Northern Emperors AD 1338 - 1392 The Hojo regents were defeated by the imperial court, but almost immediately the Ashikaga shoguns seized power and held the stronger north of Japan from Kyoto. 1336 - 1392 The Ashikaga shoguns rule in the north until the Japanese imperial court is reunited. Nambokucho Period Japan / Southern Emperors AD 1338 - 1392 These emperors ruled in the southern court only, in effect from 1336 but officially from 1338, when Ashikaga Takauji declared himself Shogun. In 1392 the southern court gave in and the country was reunified. 1336 - 1338 Go-Daigo Ruled all of Japan until 1336. 1339 - 1368 Go-Murakami 1369 - 1372 Chokei 1373 - 1392 Go-Kameyama Died 1424. 1392 The Japanese imperial court is reunited when the southern court surrenders to the north. Muromachi Period Japan AD 1392 - 1573 The Muromachi Period emperors were dominated by the Ashikaga Shoguns. The period ended when the last Ashikaga shogun was driven out of the capital in Kyoto by Oba Nobunaga. (Additional information from Tanegashima - The Arrival of Europe in Japan, Olof G Lidin, and from External Link: History Extra.) 1392 - 1412 Go-Komatsu 100th Emperor of the Sun Line. Died 1433. 1413 - 1428 Shoko 1429 - 1464 Go-Hanazono Died 1471. 1465 - 1500 Go-Tsuchimikado c.1467 The Sengoku Period, the age of civil war, begins in Japan. Some Japanese scholars are well aware of China's 'Warring States' period in the fifth to third centuries BC, and use the same term to cover this very similar period in Japanese history. 1501 - 1526 Go-Kashiwabara 1527 - 1557 Go-Nara 1543 - 1544 Although Venice's Marco Polo had known of the country's existence from his travels, the Portuguese now 'discover' Japan by accident, despite having sailed up and down the coast of China for the last thirty years. The accident is due to stormy weather blowing a vessel off course in September 1543, although perhaps the Ryukyu Islands are first explored by Portuguese in 1542. The first visit to Japan by a European seems to take place towards the end of 1544 (or early in 1545, since the country is reported to be a cold place), but the report that reaches Spanish ears is based on a mixture of hearsay and fairly accurate fact. Within seven years the Portuguese establish a trading base at Nagasaki. 1558 - 1586 Oogimachi Died 1593. 1573 The Ashikaga shogunate is ended when Yoshiaki is driven out of the capital in Kyoto by Oba Nobunaga. Azuchi-Momoyama Period Japan AD 1573 - 1603 During this period the Portuguese and Spanish began to make themselves at home in Nagasaki and a few other ports. The Japanese were appalled by the stinking, unwashed sea-dogs who manned these European carracks. One rather sniffy scribe doubted any existence of ceremonial etiquette amongst them, while complaining that they showed their feelings without any self-control. If they had not arrived with muskets to sell then they may not have been given such a welcome reception. These merchants were soon followed by Jesuit missionaries who hoped to convert the country to follow the church in Rome (whilst hiding the fact that Europe was riven by schism). The arrival in 1600 of a Dutch trader changed everything. (Additional information from External Link: History Extra.) 1587 - 1611 Go-Yôzei Died 1617. 1582 Oda Nobunaga dies, and Toyotomi Hideyoshi soon cements his place as successor, the most powerful daimyo in Japan. 1592 & 1598 Japan attempts to invade Korea twice but is defeated both times. Toyotomi Hideyoshi dies on 18 September 1598, and the Council of Five Elders keeps it a secret until they can withdraw the army from Korea. The dream of invading China is over, and Toyotomi's son, the infant Toyotomi Hideyori now faces the threat posed by the powerful Tokugawa Ieyasu. The council fulfils the role of regency for Hideyori, hoping to hold the peace until the child can come of age. 1600 The arrival of a Dutch trading vessel, the Liefde, greatly unsettles the Portuguese and Spanish merchants in Japan. The vessel's pilot, William Adams, is an Englishman of wit and charm. He is escorted to the powerful warlord, Tokugawa Ieyasu, where he reveals the lies peddled by Jesuits about religion in Europe. Ieyasu is no less interested in the Liefde's canon, and it is possible that he uses them in battle later in the year. (William Adams serves as the inspiration for the character of John Blackthorne in James Clavell's novel, Shogun, with the role played by Richard Chamberlain in the remarkable tv mini-series of the same name.) On 21 October 1600 the Battle of Sekigahara witnesses a mighty clash between more than 200,000 warlords, samurai, and retainers. The mighty 'Western Army' is loyal to an infant ruler-in-waiting named Toyotomi Hideyori. The rival 'Eastern Army' is under the command of Tokugawa Ieyasu, who hopes to seize power. His forces are outnumbered by almost two-to-one and it seems inconceivable that they can defeat the stronger army. However, Ieyasu is a shrewd operator. At a critical point in the battle, General Kobayakawa and his 16,000 crack troops switch sides to join Ieyasu. Four other general do the same, all thanks to pre-arrangements with Ieyasu. The Western Army is suddenly outnumbered, and badly off-balance. Its ranks break and scatter, and Toyotomi Hideyori is captured and married off to Ieyasu's grand-daughter, bringing him firmly under control. Ieyasu's victory ushers in the Togugawa Period, with Ieyasu himself in the role of its first Shogun. Edo Period Japan / Tokugawa Period AD 1603 - 1868 The Edo Period is also known as the Tokugawa Period, as the imperial court was dominated by the powerful Tokugawa shoguns. Japan's various daimyo (feudal lords) had been fighting amongst themselves for several centuries, with several extremely powerful warlords effectively dividing Japan into rival factions during the sixteenth century. Tokugawa Ieyasu was the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, but his military and strategic brilliance ended the opposition of any rival warlords at the Battle of Sekigahara. Under his governance Japan experienced relative peace for the next two and-a-half centuries. The capital was now at Edo (modern Tokyo). The arrival of Pilot William Adams and the Dutch ship, the Liefde, in 1600 transformed the status of foreigners in Japan. Shogun Ieyasu now encouraged both the Dutch East India Company and its English counterpart to establish trading bases. The first English ship to arrive, in 1613, was the Clove. By this time William Adams had been living in the country for thirteen years and, having the ear of the shogun, was able to act as a facilitator and translator. It was not to last, however. Ieyasu may have welcomed traders, but his son was xenophobic and vehemently anti-Christian. A wave of draconian edicts persecuted Christians and merchants alike and soon forced them to leave the country entirely. (Additional information from External Link: History Extra.) 1612 - 1629 Go-Mi-no-o Died 1680. 1623 The last English vessel in Japan sets sail in December 1623, taking with it the handful of other traders who have weathered the storm unleashed by Shogun Hidetada. The country enters a period known as sakoku - the closed country. It has seen enough of the troublesome foreign barbarians and their bitter internecine wars. Now, after almost a century of contact, it closes its doors to the world. 1630 - 1643 Empress Myosho Died 1696. 1644 - 1654 Go-Komyo 1655 -1662 Go-Saiin Died 1685. 1663 - 1686 Reigen Died 1732. 1687 - 1709 Higashi-yama 1710 - 1735 Nakamikado Died 1737. 1736 - 1746 Sakuramachi Died 1750. 1746 - 1762 Momozono 1763 - 1770 Empress Go-Sakuramachi Died 1813. 1771 - 1779 Go-Momozono 1780 - 1816 Kokaku Died 1840. 1817 - 1846 Ninko 1847 - 1867 Komei Died from haemorrhagic smallpox. 1853 For some time, no US ship has been allowed to put in at Japanese ports, and shipwrecked American sailors are regularly dispatched to prevent them from polluting the isolated Japanese culture. Commodore Matthew Perry arrives with a fleet of ships on 8 July and forces Japan to end its period of isolation. This act leads shortly to the ending of the Shogunate. 1856 Following the treaty entered into between Commodore Perry and the Shogun in 1853, the first US consul general, Townsend Harris, arrives on Japanese soil to take up his office. Initially, the Japanese refuse to recognise his official status, treating him as a private citizen and a barely-honoured guest. After eighteen months of protracted negotiations and a personal audience with the Shogun, he is able to open the first US Consulate in Shimoda under the terms of the 'Harris Treaty' (as described with a certain level of accuracy by the John Wayne feature film, The Barbarian and the Geisha, 1958). 1867 The Shogun resigns. While being part of a movement which had aimed to reform the aging shogunate, Shogun Yoshinobu is ultimately unsuccessful. The Modern Period begins in Japan. Modern Period Japan AD 1868 - Present Day With the Pacific Ocean at its back, the chain of islands that make up modern Japan reach from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. In the north Oriental Russia is not only Japan's neighbour across the Sea of Japan to the west, it also occupies the northernmost islands off the coast of Hokkaido (Hokkaidō), part of the Kuril Islands chain that was annexed by Russia at the end of the Second World War. Much of the rest of Japan faces North Korea and South Korea, while the southernmost edge of the country's territory abuts that of China to the south-west. Four main islands make up the country, these being from north to south Hokkaido, Honshu (Honshū - the largest of all of them), Shikoku (the smallest), and Kyushu (Kyūshū). A further six thousand smaller islands are also included, although less than five hundred of these are occupied. The resignation of the last Shogun in 1867 and the death of Emperor Komei in the same year ushered in a new era for Japan. Komei's successor, Mutsuhito, was able to ensure the formal restoration of imperial rule on 4 January 1868, ending 265 years of governance by the Tokugawa shogunate. The USA had already enforced the end of Japan's self-imposed isolation in 1853. Now it would be a key source of cultural influence over Japan, although perhaps not especially so until after the end of the Second World War. Strictly speaking, the modern period in Japan consists of several eras: the Meiji era (1868-1912), which saw Japan transform into a modern industrial nation; the Taisho era and Early Showa Period (1912-1945), which saw Japan extend its power over much of republican China and the Pacific; and finally the Post-War Period. Era names are selected to accompany each emperor during his reign, and subsequent emperors also have names for their eras. The term for the era which began in 2019 is made up of the two characters, 'rei' and 'wa', meaning 'order', and 'peace' or 'harmony'. For the first time the era name was taken from an old anthology of Japanese poems, the Manyoshu, instead of having a Chinese source. Japanese emperors are more often known by their personal names even after death than those which they are given upon their deaths, so official names are shown here in parenthesis where available. Inside Japan itself, such use of personal names would be considered impolite. Formality and respect remain mainstays of Japanese culture and behaviour even with the often impolite influences of the rest of the modern world. (Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from A Concise History of Modern Korea: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present, Michael J Seth, from the BBC series, The Story of China, by Michael Wood, first broadcast between 21 January and 25 February 2016, and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Japan reveals name of new imperial era will be 'Reiwa' (BBC), and Post War History (since 1945) (Japan-Guide.com), and BBC Country Profiles, and Eight years after Fukushima, what has made evacuees come home? (The Guardian).) 1867 - 1912 Mutsuhito 'the Great' Son of Komei of the Edo period. Meiji era. 1889 With the promulgation of the Meiji Constitution (the informal name for the 'Constitution of the Empire of Japan'), a prime minister is selected to head a constitutional monarchy in Japan. It is hoped that the constitution will define Japan as a capable, modern nation which is deserving of Western respect whilst preserving Japan's own power. The emperor is granted supreme control of the army and navy. Mutsuhito, the Meiji emperor of Japan, proclaims the Meiji Constitution - otherwise known as the 'Constitution of the Empire of Japan' - in 1889 1894 - 1895 With the Qin rapidly losing the age-old Chinese influence over Korea to a newly-resurgent Japan, tensions are high. A decade of peace between the two regarding Korea comes to an end when the pro-Japanese Korean leader of the 1884 coup, Kim Ok-kyun, is lured to Shanghai and is assassinated. Japanese public opinion is outraged by the subsequent treatment of his body. The peasant-led Tonghak Uprising breaks out in Korea in the same year, and Chinese attempts to reinforce the Korean king are met with military opposition by Japan. The First Sino-Japanese War is triggered. Japan's modern military forces entirely outmatch the more numerous but outdated forces of China. By March 1895 the Japanese have successfully invaded Shandong Province and Manchuria and have fortified posts that command the sea approaches to Beijing. China sues for peace. In the Treaty of Shimonoseki China recognises the independence of Korea and cedes to Japan the island of Taiwan, the adjoining Pescadores, and the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria. 1904 Japan occupies large areas of Korea during the Russo-Japanese War, with the result that a protectorate is formed to oversee these areas. Japanese resident-generals are appointed to 'manage' the country with the Korean emperor remaining in charge in name only. 1910 Following several years of increasing dominance in Korea which is tacitly supported by the Western nations, the former Korean empire is annexed to Japan. The emperor is removed and governors-general replace him in running the country. 1912 - 1926 Yoshihito Son. Taishō era. Died following heart attack. 1914 With the First World War already underway in Europe, Japan declares war on Germany on 23 August 1914. The principle motive is to take advantage of Europe's confusion - especially Germany's - to expand its own sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. Allied with Britain which has its own need to put down any German forces in the region, Japanese and British troops take Tsingtao Fortress which houses the German East Asia Squadron's headquarters. German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province are also taken, as are the Marianas, Caroline, and Marshall Islands in the Pacific, all of which are part of German New Guinea. Japan also dispatches a naval fleet to the Mediterranean in order to aid allied shipping against German U-boat attacks (the Anglo-Japanese Alliance ends in 1923, after Japan has grown disillusioned with Western cooperation and instead pursues a nationalist policy). 1919 The Sam-il Movement in Korea embodies a growing resistance to Japanese occupation there. On 1 March 1919, a group of activists read a Korean declaration of independence before signing it and sending a copy to the governor-general. The movement's leaders subsequently hand themselves in to the police, but a student reads the declaration in public. Mass demonstrations follow, increasing in size until a panicked Japanese military uses force to resolve things. Massacres and various atrocities follow, resulting in thousands of dead and injured. In the same year, following the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, China's youth are shocked to find that the former German colonial territory in China is now to form part of a Japanese territory. They regard this with a sense of outrage. On 4 May 1919, using their newfound rights to freedom of speech, a huge student demonstration is organised in the capital. Japan's occupation of Korea was viewed with some unease by the Western powers but was generally accepted as being necessary to ensure peace and stability in the region 1920 A force of 40,000 Czech soldiers which has fought its way across Siberia following the collapse of the Russian empire is finally extracted by a joint American-Japanese bridgehead established at Vladivostok. 1926 - 1989 Hirohito Son. Shōwa era. Renounced Sun Line divinity 1947. Died of cancer. 1937 The Second Sino-Japanese War is triggered when Japan launches a full-scale invasion of China, inadvertently saving the nascent communist movement from utter obscurity and extinction. That December, in a six-week reign of terror, the Japanese army massacres more than 250,000 people in Nanjing. In distant Yan'an, the defeated communist guerrilla army now finds itself part of a liberation struggle. One of the most fervent leaders of the movement, Mao Zedong, has gained power over the party and has emerged as a formidable and ruthless revolutionary. A 'United Front' is formed with the nationalists under Chinese Prime Minister Chiang Kai-shek and the communists under Mao, fighting the common enemy - Japan. 1941 Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the USA join the war on the allied side, initially against Japan, but Germany is soon included. Almost at the same time as the attack on Pearl Harbour, Japanese forces land in Siam's territory. Initial Siamese resistance is brief, and following negotiations, the Japanese forces are allowed to advance towards the British-controlled Malay peninsula, Singapore, and Burma. 1942 Peru becomes the first South American country to join the war on the side of the allies, while Mexico does the same in June. Brazil joins in August. Prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, Britain had been openly supplying China in its fight against Japanese occupation. Now Japan launches its own operation to capture Burma, using its puppet formation, the 'Burma Independence Army' which includes founding recruit Aung San. The Japanese military invasion is launched in January 1942, and the country is captured from the low-key British forces by the spring. 1943 Bolivia joins the war on the side of the allies in April, while Colombia joins in July. Japan's own war efforts are now starting to face difficulties as the USA ramps up its attacks in the Pacific. The year starts with a successful Japanese evacuation of Guadalcanal but as it progresses, the losses in Pacific territory mount up. Japanese evacuation from Guadalcanal was largely successful thanks to bombing attacks on the US fleet, with very few Japanese troops surrendering to the Allies, but it marked the beginning of a series of setbacks for Japan 1945 In February, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Uruguay belatedly join the war on the side of the allies, while in March Argentina joins, followed by Chile in April. On the ground, Japan is forced out of southern Burma by a joint British-Burmese uprising. On 6 August, an atom bomb is dropped on the city of Hiroshima by the US bomber, 'Enola Gay'. A further bomb dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August brings a declaration of surrender from Japan on 2 September. Japan also surrenders its empire, including territory in China and Korea. 1945 - 1952 USA occupies the main Japanese islands, with a presence being maintained by American troops until 1952. The US enforces a new constitution on the country, one which prohibits it from possessing an overt military force or engaging in warfare. Most of Japan's cities have suffered heavy damage to enemy bombers, and food shortages continue for some years, but Japan is still able to establish itself as a global economic and political power during this period. 1956 - 1972 Japan joins the United Nations in 1956, while the Olympic Games are held in Tokyo in 1964. The Japanese prime minister visits China in 1972 and normal diplomatic relations are resumed. Japan subsequently closes its embassy in Taiwan, signalling to the republican Chinese the fact that their claim to sovereignty has lost another supporter. Okinawa is returned to Japanese sovereignty, but the USA retains bases there. 1989 - 2019 Akihito Son. Heisei era. 125th Emperor of the Sun Line. Abdicated. 1995 Two disasters hit Japan in the same year, the first being an earthquake in central Japan in January. It kills thousands and causes widespread damage. The city of Kobe is hardest hit. In March a religious sect known as Aum Shinrikyo releases the deadly sarin nerve gas on the Tokyo underground railway system. Twelve people are killed and thousands are injured. 2004 - 2006 An Anglo-American-led Second Gulf War leads to the collapse of Hussein's regime after just twenty-one days of fighting. Hussein is eventually captured, after having been located in an underground bunker (more of a deep fox hole). For the first time since the Second World War, Japanese non-combat soldiers are included in the allied forces. In the same year in which they return home - 2006 - Japan's parliament approves the country's first post-war defence ministry. 2011 In March one of the greatest recorded earthquakes takes place offshore and this - followed by a tsunami - devastates Japan's north-eastern coast. Damage to the Fukushima nuclear plant causes a radiation leak that leaves extensive areas uninhabitable and contaminates food supplies. It takes until 2019 before Fukushima's outlying town residents are allowed to return home. An aerial view of Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant in Okuma, which remains mostly-off-limits, although residents of the nearby town were allowed to return in 2019 2014 - 2015 Japan's government approves a landmark change in security policy in July 2014, paving the way for its military to fight overseas. The lower house of parliament backs bills in July 2015 which permit troops to fight overseas for the first time since the Second World War, prompting protests at home and criticism from an increasingly militaristically aggressive China. 2019 In April Akihito fulfils his stated objective of stepping down as emperor - the first incumbent to do so for almost two hundred years. Aged eighty-five, his reign has witnessed a period in which Japan has been engaged in no warfare at all, earning his era the title of 'Heisei', meaning 'achieving peace'. 2019 - Present Naruhito Son. Reiwa era. Born 23 Feb 1960. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsFarEast/JapanDynastiesOld.htm